Uses of Radioisotopes

Uses of Radioisotopes

Radioisotopes

1. Radioisotopes are isotopes with radioactive properties.

2. Isotopes are elements whose atoms have the same number of proton but different number of neutrons.

3. isotopes have different nucleon numbers but the same proton number.

4. Radioisotopes is isotopes with unstable nuclei.

5. Synthetic isotopes are produced by unstable nuclei that decay.

6. There are many uses of radioisotopes in the field of medicine, agriculture, industry and research.

7. Radioisotopes as used as tracers in scientific research, medical diagnosis and industry.

Half-life

Half-life

Concept of Half-life

1. The reactivity or activity of a radioactive material is the rate of decay of the material.

2. The rate of decay is the same as the number of atoms which decay or are emmited every second.

3. The rate of decay of a radioactive materials depends on the number of atoms that have not yet undergone decay. Thus, the reactivity of a radioactive material will decrease with time.

4. The half-life of a radioactive element is the time taken for half the number of atoms in a sample of radioactive atoms to decay.

Decay curve.

1. The half-life of the same radioactive element is the same but the half-lives of different radioactive elements are different.

2. The value of half-life is not influenced by factors such as temperatures, pressure and etc.

Usage of Half-life

Half-life in Archeology

1. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5600 years.

2. Humus, animals and plants absorb carbon-14 through carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere. A small amount in CO2 exists as carbon-14.

3. Living animals and vegetable have a constant amount of Carbon-14 because the c-14 decayed will always replaced.

4. However or dead beings the amount of C-14 in it will decrease because new C-14 will not be absorbed causing its reactivity to decrease.

5. When an antique or human skill are found, their age can be determined by

· Measuring the reactivity of C-14 in it.

· Determine the ratio of decay carbon-14 against intact carbon-14.

Concept of Half-life

1. The reactivity or activity of a radioactive material is the rate of decay of the material.

2. The rate of decay is the same as the number of atoms which decay or are emmited every second.

3. The rate of decay of a radioactive materials depends on the number of atoms that have not yet undergone decay. Thus, the reactivity of a radioactive material will decrease with time.

4. The half-life of a radioactive element is the time taken for half the number of atoms in a sample of radioactive atoms to decay.

Decay curve.

1. The half-life of the same radioactive element is the same but the half-lives of different radioactive elements are different.

2. The value of half-life is not influenced by factors such as temperatures, pressure and etc.

Usage of Half-life

Half-life in Archeology

1. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5600 years.

2. Humus, animals and plants absorb carbon-14 through carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere. A small amount in CO2 exists as carbon-14.

3. Living animals and vegetable have a constant amount of Carbon-14 because the c-14 decayed will always replaced.

4. However or dead beings the amount of C-14 in it will decrease because new C-14 will not be absorbed causing its reactivity to decrease.

5. When an antique or human skill are found, their age can be determined by

· Measuring the reactivity of C-14 in it.

· Determine the ratio of decay carbon-14 against intact carbon-14.

Radioactive Detectors

Radioactive Detectors

Geiger-Muller Tube

1. The Geiger-Muller tube is an effective radioactive detector. It can trace alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays.
2. The outer part of the G-M tube is made of aluminium which acts as the cathode.
3. The middle part of the G-M tube is a metal wire which acts as the anode.
4. The G-M tube is filled with argon gas at low pressure.
5. Initially, the G-M tube must be connected to a high voltage before being used.
6. This high voltage causes some ionization of argon gas.

Cloud Chamber

1. The cloud chamber is made by using a transparent plastic box. The space in it is divided into two parts by a metal.
2. The lower part is filled with solid carbon dioxide. Sponge is used to push the solid carbon dioxide towards the metal plate.
3. The upper part is filled with molecules of alcohol vapour released from the felt which is initially soaked in alcohol.
4. When the alcohol vapour diffuses downwards, it will become colder. Thus, a supersaturated condition will be produced in the space in the lower part of the chamber.
5. When the radioactive rays enter the upper part, the ionization of air will occur. Saturated alcohol vapour will move above the ions. Droplets of liquid alcohol on the ions will cause the formation of misty tracks.
6. Steps to ensure clear tracks:
• The transparent Perspex cover is rubbed with a soft cloth to produce charges which will remove all ions in the chamber before any radioactive rays enter.
• The cloud chamber must be placed horizontally to ensure smooth flow of particles in it.
• If light is used, it must shine on the area superated with vapour and not on the black base of the chamber in order to avoid heating it.
7. Normally, the tracks produced are not uniform. This shows that the radioactive rays are produced randomly.
8. There are three types of tracks as shown in Table below.

Types of radioactive rays	Explanation
Tracks of alpha particles	The alpha tracks are thick and straight. This shows that alpha particles have the strongest ionizing power and the biggest mass.
Tracks of beta particles	The beta tracks are thin and curvy. This shows that beta particles have low ionizing power and small mass.
Tracks of gamma ray	Their tracks are short, curvy and spiky from the middle. It shows that it has the lowest ionizing power.

9. The number of radioactive tracks produced will decrease after a while. This is because after some time, the condensation of alcohol vapour on the radioactive source will block the emission of radioactive rays.

Spark counter

1. The wire gauze and thin wire are connected to a voltage of more than 2000 V.

2. The voltage is increased slowly until sparks are produced in between.

3. The sparks are formed due to ionisation of the air.

4. The voltage is then decreased until no sparks are formed.

5. The radioactive source is brought close to the wire gauze.

6. The radioactive rays will ionize the air molecules between the wire gauze and thin wire. Positively charged ions will be attracted to the negatively charged gauze and the negatively charged ions will be attracted to the positively charged thin ions.

7. Secondary ionization will occur due to the collision between the ions and the air molecules.

8. Therefore, sparks are formed.

9. The number of sparks measured the intensity of radioactive rays from its source randomly.

10. The spark counter can only trace alpha particles which have high ionizing power.

Electroscope

1. When charged plate of the electroscope is exposed to the source of alpha particles, the gold leaf will collapse slowly.

2. This is due to the ions and electron are produced by the alpha particles which will neutralize the charge in the electroscope.

3. The rate of collapse of the gold leaf indicates the strength of the radioactive source.

Photographic Plate

1. All types of radioactive rays will darken the photo film. The effect is like sunlight acting on it.

2. The ionization effect by the radioactive rays will decompose silver bromide crystals on the film.

3. Films which are exposed to sunlight will show white lines representing radioactive tracks.

4. Films are kept in the badges worn by workers as a tracer device of radioactive rays.

5. The main disadvantage of using a film as a radioactive tracer is that it needs to be processed in order to prove the presence of radioactive rays.

RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity

1. Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random emission of radioactive rays from unstable radioactive materials after which they become more stable.

2. The process is said to be spontaneous because it is not influenced by any physical factors such as temperature, pressure, time, etc.

3. A nucleus is unstable if it is too big. All nuclei with z > 83 or A> 209 are unstable.

4. The emission of radioactive rays is random means that

• Emission occurs at irregular intervals.
• Emission does not occur at the same means.

5. There are three different types of radioactive emissions.

• Alpha particle- a
• Beta particle- B
• Gamma ray-r

6. Table below shows the characteristics of alpha particle, beta particle, and gamma particle.

Characteristic	Alpha particle	Beta particle	Gamma ray
Nature	Positively charged helium nucleus, He	Negatively charged electron, e	Neutral electromagnet ray
In an electric field	Bends to the negative plate	Bends to the positive plate	Does not bend, showing that it is neutral.
In magnetic field	Bends a little showing that it has a big mass. Direction of the bend indicates that it is positively charged.	Bends a lot showing that it has a small mass. Direction of the bend indicates that it is negatively charged.	Does not bend showing that it is neutral.
Ionising power	Strongest	Intermediate	Weakest
Penetrating power	low	Intermediate	High
Stopped by	A thin sheet of paper	A few millimeters of aluminium	A few centimeters of lead or concrete
Range in air	A few centimeters	A few metres	A few hundred metres
Speed	1/20 X the speed of light, c	3%-99% of the speed of light, c	The speed of light,c

Bad habits, addiction and healthy habits are subconscious behaviors formed through repetitions. People who have harmful habits are aware of the consequences and risks to their well being. They feel the pinch on their wallets. They also know others get irritated and annoyed being around them.

But as long as they are reluctant to give up the bad practice, they'll allow their mental conditioning to have control over their lives. If they do quit, it's temporary. They'll get back to it again.

It takes about 21 days of determination and discipline to change or form a new habit. Some of these that have been ingrained so deep in the brain will take a lot longer. This is why there are support groups and tools to help people with addictive behavior. Some people can't do it alone or have no willpower.

List of bad habits...

1. Nail biting
   
   
   
2. Smoking
   
   
   
3. Borrowing money
   
   
   
4. Procrastination
   
   
   
5. Overeating or food addiction
   
   
   
6. Desiring something for nothing
   
   
   
7. Compulsive shopping
   
   
   
8. Binge drinking or habitual intoxication
   
   
   
9. Nose picking
   
   
   
10. Hair pulling and twirling
    
    
    
11. Gambling
    
    
    
12. Cracking knuckles
    
    
    
13. Drug addiction

How to Break Bad Habits

Identify the stimulus or trigger.
You don't overeat, smoke or do your behavior all the time. Something has to trigger you to automatically get into it. The next time you feel the urge to do it, pause and become aware when and how the stimulus show up. What is it that makes you want to pick the cigarette, or whatever your addiction is?

Communicate with yourself and look for the underlying intention.
Ask yourself what you are trying to gain by generating the behavior. Search for the answers from your unconscious. Listen carefully because your mind will come up with many answers and issues.

Find the inner motivation that is causing you to repeat your undesirable patterns. How do you see yourself if you were to continue doing your habit? Do you perceive a lot of pain disengaging or letting go of your addiction or attachment?


See the benefit of getting rid of the habit.
What kind of image do you see if you no longer have the habit? How would you feel when you have removed your addictive behavior? What kind of improvement in your performance can you see if you make a change?


Repeat seeing your new empowering positive image.
Make a conscious effort to see your new image each time you feel like repeating your habit. You are telling your subconscious mind to cancel the old thought pattern and override it with the person you would like to become.

You are leading and directing the mind to change its thought patterns and developing a different thinking and reacting to the trigger.

Sound Advice on the Advantages of Smoking Tobacco

Sound Advice on the Advantages of Smoking Tobacco

---

You will always have something to do with your hands. To avoid headaches later in the day, always have a cigarette first thing in the morning. If you work with explosives, you have a handy method of lighting the fuse. Smoking is a good career move if you want early retirement and would like to use up your sick leave. On New Years Eve you don't have to go out to the fireworks. Just dip your cigarette into a jar of ground up sparklers. Amuse your friends and be the life of the party by blowing smoke rings. Always discard your butts in flower pots and garden beds as it helps fertilise the plants and keeps insects away. Occasional house fires will help keep firemen employed. By buying cigarettes from corner stores, you help support local businesses and help retain the fabric of our society. At the beach, children can use the butts to decorate their sand castles. Annoy neighbours you don't like by staying home and smoking heavily. You will always have a good reason for loitering - "Officer, I'm just having a cigarette". Always smoke when you are pregnant. Your smoking helps the unborn baby prepare for the air pollution in the real world. When your neighbour's kids are too noisy, trigger their asthma by breathing smoke on them. By smoking heavily, you get out of boring work and will have plenty of short breaks during the day. Develop your cool image and fun-loving personality by being a smoker. Non-smoking is for wimps and wusses. You will have a good reason to paint the ceilings every three years. Why celebrate world no-tobacco day once a year, when every day can be celebrated as a pro-tobacco day. You will know when it's time to throw out your old lounge suite by the number of burn marks. Smoking is an adult custom. Add years to how old you look by smoking heavily. If you run out of smokes late at night, help the taxi industry by getting them to deliver your smokes to the door. You can demand more services and benefits from the government because you have paid more in taxes. Help keep the bush fire brigades trained and ready for any emergency by throwing lighted butts from your car window. Keep your weight down by smoking cigarettes instead of eating them.

How to turn your ideas and dreams into reality.

Do any of these scenarios sound familiar? On many a night, you vow to yourself you will exercise in the morning, eat healthier foods the next day, and/or not have that alcoholic beverage when you get home from work. It is now morning, your alarm clock sounds and you decide to hit the snooze button six times making you rush to get to work on time, eat a pop tart for breakfast, and open a bottle of wine right after walking into your home at night.

There is a networking function at 7 p.m. downtown. You have been working diligently since 9 a.m. and now it is 4:30 p.m. You are tired but know that networking is one of your keys to your success. Even though you know this and have personal data to prove networking works, you get in your car at 5 p.m. and drive home.

If the above situations happen on occasion, that is one thing. But if this is a regular pattern, something needs to change. Of course, most people already know this, but the actual steps of how to change are not well known. Individuals are often under the illusion that if one possesses a great desire and intent to change, one will make these wanted changes. As said, this is often just an illusion. Wanting and intending to change are necessary mental states to reach a personal goal but additional thought and active behavioral steps are needed before real change can happen. Here are some suggestions that can help you make the changes in your life that you truly feel you want, are willing to apply some personal effort, and dedicate some real time to reach your goals.
Suggestion #1: Set positive goals. You don’t have to see the world in a positive Pollyannaish light all of the time, but you are advised to structure your goals as to what you are going to do and not what you are not going to do anymore. Human brains are wired to accomplish tasks, thus setting a course of what you are going to do is much easier to achieve than figuring out your next step when you are attempting to not do something. For example, you are far more likely to be successful in reaching the goal of making three new outreach phone calls one day rather than setting a goal of not surfing the Internet on a particular day.
Suggestion #2: Spend five minutes each day visualizing in your mind what your life looks like after you have made your desired changes. Your boss is constantly praising your work in front of your coworkers. You feel stronger, are standing taller, and have more energy each day now that you are exercising regularly, eating better, and drinking less alcohol. You are writing a new contract that accounts for 10% of your job position’s monthly financial goal.
Suggestion #3: Figure out what you can do and start there. Asking yourself to exercise 60 minutes a day, seven days a week when you haven't even broken a sweat in the last month is an unreasonable request of yourself. But if you know you can get to an exercise class 1-2 times this next week, this is where you should start. Or what about staying an extra ½ hour at work this next week and responding via email to everyone in your inbox? You could also ask your friend that you have been meaning to meet up with to meet you at the next networking event, and then together meet three new people at the event who you plan to follow up with the next workday, and then go out to dinner, just you and your friend.
Suggestion #4: The more data you collect, the better. Keep a personal journal or log of the behavior you are trying to change. Research shows that recording your behavior, even if you don’t actively try to modify your behavior, leads to positive behavior change. Individuals who record their sales calls, their eating and exercise behaviors, and their attempts at being more assertive in meetings, are all more likely to yield positive results than those who have not monitored and recorded these behaviors. Furthermore, changing a pattern of behavior requires one to know their behavior patterns. Knowing what environmental, emotional, and/or physical stimulus contributes to continuing patterns of unwanted behavior provides understanding into why you continue to act out problematic behaviors. This knowledge allows you to intervene on many levels such as modifying your environment and/or managing your internal emotions to create behavior changes that positively affect your external world.